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Blaugust #3 (2025-08-04)

Before starting, anyone who has read my stuff before might notice that I am actually using correct capitalization now! I realized that, especially with the font I'm using, it helps with the readability of it all, so I'm going to be using that from now on. Now when I actually update the rest of the website to follow is truly a matter of "when-I-feel-like-it". Further, this post will not have many citations as this is more off the brain and quick researching. A more academic and fact checked article will come at some point. Anyways, onto the post.

I realized that people who are reading my blog probably have very little to no knowledge on what the teachings of Buddhism actually are. If I were to guess, it could probably be summarized as "that religion? philosophy? about meditation and peace. Also the Dalai Lama is there somewhere??", which isn't entirely wrong but far from a complete picture. For example:

So how can we understand Buddhism? I think the natural first thought is "well, let's read what the Buddha said," via reading sacred texts. The problem is that reading every single sacred text would be impossible in Buddhism. Buddhist texts can be largely divided into three different canons.

First, there is the Pāli Canon, which is utilized by the Theravāda school and contains around 55 printed volumes (finding concerete numbers for anything Buddhism related is pretty difficult). Second, there is the Taishō Tripiṭaka which is the definitive edition for Chinese Buddhism, containing 5,320 individual texts. Third, there is the Kangyur and Tengyur for Tibetan Buddhism, which contains 4,569 texts. Even if you found the time to somehow read all of them, many simply have not been translated out of their original language, especially within the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This is why when Mahāyāna develops into different schools, they tend to focus around a single sūtra (a "discourse") as being the most important and most concise of all the Buddha's teachings.

Next, there is the problem of canoncity. Generally, a work is considered canonical if it was spoken by the Buddha or a disciple of the Buddha; in Mahāyāna this expands to include any Buddha or any Bodhisattva (more on those terms later). Theravāda strongly disagrees that any of the Mahāyāna texts are canonical. So what is Theravāda and Mahāyāna?

Theravāda, or the "School of Elders", is the only currently existing early school of Buddhism. Their scripture is recorded in Pali, which is also considered the language that the Buddha spoke in. Currently, Theravāda is the major school of South and Southeast Asia. Mahāyāna, or the "Great Wheel", emerges out of a series of texts from around the 1000 CE that claim to also be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna texts are in a variety of languages, but primarily are Classical Chinese, Classical Japanese, Classical Tibetan, and Sanskrit. Mahāyāna is the major school of East and North Asia. I will hold off for now on explaining their theological differences, mainly because I haven't even discussed the core tenets of Buddhism. As such, I'll first talk about the overarching goal of all Buddhist schools along with some cosmological things that need to be understood, then the life of the Buddha along with his teachings, and finally later developments in Buddhist thought.

Cosmology of Buddhism

"The bad news is you're falling through the air, nothing to hang on to, no parachute. The good news is, there's no ground."

- Chögyam Trungpa

In Buddhist thought, we live in a cycle of rebirth termed "saṃsāra". No matter who you are and what you do, you will die and be reborn again. You can be reborn in a variety of world systems (such as amongst the gods, or "devas", or in the pits of hell) as a result of your intentional actions, or "karma". Even if your rebirth is pleasureful or filled with anguish, it will end as you are reborn once again. This is the "dharma", or ultimate reality, of all things. Buddhist thought puts this as an inherently negative state of being: everything you know and love will die and suffer, and you can not do anything about that.

This does not meant the cycle of saṃsāra can not be escaped, however. These are the arhats. They will never be reborn in saṃsāra and are truly free. How does one become an arhat? One must achieve nirvāṇa (you will also see it spelled as nibbāna; nirvāṇa is Sanskrit while nibbāna is Pali). How does one achieve nirvāṇa? One must extinguish the "three poisons" of greed (raga), hatred (dvesha), and ignorance (moha). For those that have achieved nirvāṇa, it is impossible for those feelings to emerge in them again. How does one extinguish the three poisons? That is the path of Buddhism.

The Buddha

It is said that long ago, probably around the 5th century BCE, a baby was born to the Śākya (a name of a clan in northeastern India) chieftain Śuddhodana and Mahāmāyā. His conception itself was already strange: Mahāmāyā dreamt of a white elephant carrying a white lotus on its trunk inserting itself into her womb. Upon waking up, she was pregnant (and thus no genitalia was used in the process).

Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1998), 19.

 The oddity continues:

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘Seven days after the being intent on awakening is born, his mother passes away and is reborn in the host of joyful gods.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘Other women carry the infant in the womb for nine or ten months before giving birth. Not so the mother of the being intent on awakening. She gives birth after exactly ten months.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘Other women give birth while sitting or lying down. Not so the mother of the being intent on awakening. She only gives birth standing up.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘When the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, gods receive him first, then humans.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘When the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, before he reaches the ground, four godlings receive him and place him before his mother, saying: “Rejoice, O Queen! An illustrious son is born to you.”’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘When the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, he emerges already clean, unsoiled by waters, mucus, blood, or any other kind of impurity, pure and clean. Suppose a jewel-treasure was placed on a cloth from Kāsi. The jewel would not soil the cloth, nor would the cloth soil the jewel. Why is that? Because of the cleanliness of them both.

In the same way, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, he emerges already clean, unsoiled by waters, mucus, blood, or any other kind of impurity, pure and clean.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘When the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, two showers of water appear from the sky, one cool, one warm, for bathing the being intent on awakening and his mother.’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘As soon as he’s born, the being intent on awakening stands firm with his own feet on the ground. Facing north, he takes seven strides with a white parasol held above him, surveys all quarters, and makes this dramatic proclamation: “I am the foremost in the world! I am the eldest in the world! I am the first in the world! This is my last rebirth; now there’ll be no more future lives.”’ This too I remember as an incredible quality of the Buddha.

I have learned this in the presence of the Buddha: ‘When the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, then—in this world with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods. Even in the boundless void of interstellar space—so utterly dark that even the light of the moon and the sun, so mighty and powerful, makes no impression—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods. And the sentient beings reborn there recognize each other by that light: “So, it seems other sentient beings have been reborn here!” And this ten-thousandfold galaxy shakes and rocks and trembles. And an immeasurable, magnificent light appears in the world, surpassing the glory of the gods.’ This too I remember as an incredible and amazing quality of the Buddha.”

Acchariyaabbhutasutta, MN 123, translated by Bhikkhu Sujato.

It seems soon after, though, that he forgets about his declaration that is the Buddha and turns simply into a normal baby again. Here, he was given the name Siddhārtha Gautama. But, signs of future greatness still appeared. Most notably, he was examined for the "32 marks of a great man". One who wields all 32 will either become a "wheel-turning king" (a king who rules the world in perfect justice) or becomes a buddha.

Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1998), 20.

 Determined to make sure his kid becomes a king, he gives Siddhārtha a life of luxury, free from any suffering possible. Yet, this plan did not work out, as destiny took over:

In my father’s home, lotus ponds were made just for me. In some, blue water lilies blossomed, while in others, there were pink or white lotuses, just for my benefit. I only used sandalwood from Kāsi, and my turbans, jackets, sarongs, and upper robes also came from Kāsi. And a white parasol was held over me night and day, with the thought: ‘Don’t let cold, heat, grass, dust, or damp bother him.’

I had three stilt longhouses—one for the winter, one for the summer, and one for the rainy season. I stayed in a stilt longhouse without coming downstairs for the four months of the rainy season, where I was entertained by musicians—none of them men.

[...] Amid such prosperity and such a delicate lifestyle, I thought: ‘When an unlearned ordinary person—who is liable to grow old, not being exempt from old age—sees someone else who is old, they’re horrified, repelled, and disgusted, overlooking the fact that they themselves are in the same situation. But since I, too, am liable to grow old, it would not be appropriate for me to be horrified, embarrassed, and disgusted, when I see someone else who is old.’ Reflecting like this, I entirely gave up the vanity of youth.

‘When an unlearned ordinary person—who is liable to get sick, not being exempt from sickness—sees someone else who is sick, they’re horrified, repelled, and disgusted, overlooking the fact that they themselves are in the same situation. But since I, too, am liable to get sick, it would not be appropriate for me to be horrified, embarrassed, and disgusted, when I see someone else who is sick.’ Reflecting like this, I entirely gave up the vanity of health.

‘When an unlearned ordinary person—who is liable to die, not being exempt from death—sees someone else who is dead, they’re horrified, repelled, and disgusted, overlooking the fact that they themselves are in the same situation. But since I, too, am liable to die, it would not be appropriate for me to be horrified, embarrassed, and disgusted, when I see someone else who is dead.’ Reflecting like this, I entirely gave up the vanity of life.

Sukhumālasutta, AN 3.39, translated by Bhikkhu Sujato.

Other sources elaborate on this, explaining that he went on a chariot ride that resulted in him seeing an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and then a śramaṇa (an ascetic). The first three made him realize impermeance, and the fourth made him realize the way out. As such, he became a śramaṇa himself.

At first, he joined the company of Ārāḍa Kālāma and then Udraka Rāmaputra to understand their systems, but found both of them unsatisfying. Next he oined a group of five śramaṇas who practiced severe austerities. His body became severely weakened as a result, to the point of the gods themselves thinking that he must be dead, yet he was no closer to enlightenment. But then he remembers something:

Then I thought, ‘Whatever ascetics and brahmins have experienced painful, sharp, severe, acute feelings due to overexertion—whether in the past, future, or present—this is as far as it goes, no-one has done more than this. But I have not achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones by this severe, grueling work. Could there be another path to awakening?’

Then it occurred to me, ‘I recall sitting in the cool shade of a black plum tree while my father the Sakyan was off working. Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, I entered and remained in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. Could that be the path to awakening?’

Stemming from that memory came the understanding: ‘That is the path to awakening!’

Then it occurred to me, ‘Why am I afraid of that pleasure, for it has nothing to do with sensual pleasures or unskillful qualities?’ Then I thought, ‘I’m not afraid of that pleasure, for it has nothing to do with sensual pleasures or unskillful qualities.’

Then I thought, ‘I can’t achieve that pleasure with a body so excessively emaciated. Why don’t I eat some solid food, some rice and porridge?’ So I ate some solid food.

Now at that time the five mendicants were attending on me, thinking, ‘The ascetic Gotama will tell us of any truth that he realizes.’ But when I ate some solid food, they left disappointed in me, saying, ‘The ascetic Gotama has become indulgent; he has strayed from the struggle and returned to indulgence.’

Mahāsaccakasutta, MN 36, translated by Bhikkhu Sujato.

With his friends abandoning him but now nourished by food, Siddhārtha begins his quest for awakening. This journey to achieving nirvāṇa, or enlightenment, is told in different ways across traditions (and within the same traditions). A fantastical account deals with Māra (the embodiment of evil in Buddhism, similar to Satan) tempting the Buddha into breaking his meditation, which fails and leads to his enlightenment. This story is where we get the famous "earth-touching mudrā", where when Māra asks who can vouch that Siddhārtha had actually been perfecting the pāramitās ("perfections"), he touches the Earth and calls upon it as his witness, which ultimaty defeats Māra and awakens Siddhārtha. Unfortunately for you all, I actually find the earlier accounts to be more interesting and informative, which are more boring, dealing only with Siddhārtha's thought process. We will first deal with the very important revelation Siddhārtha had before becoming a Buddha: dependent origination.

Dependent origination

First is the idea of "dependent origination", which is the idea that everything in the universe has been caused by something else. What Siddhārtha here is contemplating is what exactly causes ageing and death, which is suffering.

“I thought: ‘[...] And this is how it happens whether one is being born, ageing or dying, passing away or reappearing. That is to say: It is with name-and-form as condition that consciousness comes to be; with consciousness as condition, name-and-form; with name-and-form as condition, the sixfold base for contact; with the sixfold base as condition, contact; with contact as condition, feeling; with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging; with clinging as condition, being; with being as condition, birth; with birth as condition, ageing and death come to be, and also sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair; that is how there is an origin to this whole aggregate mass of suffering.’ The origin, the origin: such was the insight, the knowledge, the understanding, the vision, the light, that arose in me about things not heard before.

[...]

“I thought: ‘This is the path to enlightenment that I have now reached, that is to say: With cessation of name-and-form there is cessation of consciousness; with cessation of consciousness, cessation of name-and-form; with cessation of name-and-form, cessation of the sixfold base; with cessation of the sixfold base, cessation of contact; with cessation of contact, cessation of feeling; with cessation of feeling, cessation of craving; with cessation of craving, cessation of clinging; with cessation of clinging, cessation of being; with cessation of being, cessation of birth; with cessation of birth, ageing and death cease, and also sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair; that is how there is a cessation to this whole aggregate mass of suffering.’ The cessation, the cessation: such was the insight, the knowledge, the understanding, the vision, the light, that arose in me about things not heard before.

“Suppose a man wandering in a forest wilderness found an ancient path, an ancient trail, travelled by men of old, and he followed it up, and by doing so he discovered an ancient city, an ancient royal capital, where men of old had lived, with parks and groves and lakes, walled round and beautiful to see, so I too found the ancient path, the ancient trail, travelled by the Fully Enlightened Ones of old.

“And what was that ancient path, that ancient trail? It was this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon (Buddhist Publication Society: Kandy, 2015), SN 12:65, 27.

If this is confusing to you, don't worry. Name-and-form is synonymous with the "five aggregates" (skandha). The five aggegates are the factors that result in us clinging: form, sensations, perceptions, karmic results, and consciousness. These make up individual things, and, upon realizing that nothing is distinct, we go down the path of cessation of suffering. This concept will be extremely important down the line as we talk about no-self and the doctrine of emptiness.

The three watches

So now that Siddhārtha has realized this, the three watches leading up to his enlightenment begin:

After eating solid food and gathering my strength, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, I entered and remained in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind.

As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected were stilled, I entered and remained in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind. And with the fading away of rapture, I entered and remained in the third absorption, where I meditated with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind. With the giving up of pleasure and pain, and the ending of former happiness and sadness, I entered and remained in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind.

When my mind had immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—I extended it toward recollection of past lives. I recollected my many kinds of past lives, with features and details.

This was the first knowledge, which I achieved in the first watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed and light arose, as happens for a meditator who is diligent, keen, and resolute. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind.

When my mind had immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—I extended it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, I saw sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. I understood how sentient beings are reborn according to their deeds.

This was the second knowledge, which I achieved in the middle watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed and light arose, as happens for a meditator who is diligent, keen, and resolute. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind.

When my mind had immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—I extended it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements. I truly understood: ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.’ I truly understood: ‘These are defilements’ … ‘This is the origin of defilements’ … ‘This is the cessation of defilements’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of defilements.’

Knowing and seeing like this, my mind was freed from the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance. When it was freed, I knew it was freed.

I understood: ‘Rebirth is ended; the spiritual journey has been completed; what had to be done has been done; there is nothing further for this place.’

This was the third knowledge, which I achieved in the last watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed and light arose, as happens for a meditator who is diligent, keen, and resolute. But even such pleasant feeling did not occupy my mind.

Mahāsaccakasutta, MN 36, translated by Bhikkhu Sujato.

Siddhārtha was no longer Siddhārtha: he was now the Buddha. But wait... what is a Buddha?

Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

The Buddha is a shorthand term to refer to Siddhārtha Gautama after achieving nirvāṇa. Due to their being multiple Buddhas, you will see Buddha Gautama or Buddha Śakyamuni ("Sage of the Śakyas") also used.

Our discussion must first go back to the term "arhat", e.g. those who have left the cycle of saṃsāra for good. Buddhas are arhats, but they are more than that. Buddhas differ as being teachers of the dharma, but unlike other arhats, have not heard the teaching of the dharma before, discovering it for themselves (there are Buddhas who do not teach, pratyekabuddha, but they are considered inferior to Buddhas who do teach, saṃyaksaṃbuddha).

All varieties of Buddhism agree that there have been many Buddhas in the past and there will be more in the future (for example, the Buddha prior to the Buddha Gautama was the Kāśyapa Buddha, and the Buddha-to-be is the Maitreya). In Theravāda thought, there can only be one Buddha at a time. This is contradicted in Mahāyāna (which states multiple Buddhas can co-exist at the same time). Further, Mahāyāna also states that Buddhas are actually cosmic, eternal beings who manifest human forms in order to teach the dharma and can continue teaching after their parinirvāṇa, e.g. their death following the achievement of nirvāṇa (Theravāda states that Buddhas were also people like you and me, and that after their parinirvāṇa they will never come back).

The term "Bodhisattva" (bodhisatta i Pali) is used to refer to someone who will become a Buddha in the future and have received confirmation by a living Buddha that this will be so. In Theravāda, this is an incredibly rare event with very few people becoming Bodhisattvas. On the other hand, Mahāyāna's whole point is the becoming of a Bodhisattva-- in Mahāyāna thought, any being who has the wish and compassion to free all beings from suffering can embark on the Bodhisattva path.

This is also where a wide divergence in worship emerges. Theravāda generally reserves veneration for the Buddha Gautama, or in some minor cases, the Maitreya. Mahāyāna, however, heavily promotes worship and veneration of various Buddhas (e.g. Amithaba, Bhaiṣajyaguru, Vairocana) and various Bodhissatvas (e.g. Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, Kṣitigarbha).

The first sermon

Although initially reluctant to teach, the god Brahmā convinced the Buddha to begin his ministry. Tradition puts his first sermon as the "Discourse on the Rolling Forth the Wheel of the Dharma" (Dhammacakkappavattanasutta), which he taught to the old five śramaṇas that he started his practice with. It teaches the core doctrines of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, and is as follows:

At one time the Buddha was staying near Varanasi, in the deer park at Isipatana. There the Buddha addressed the group of five mendicants:

“Mendicants, these two extremes should not be cultivated by one who has gone forth. What two? Indulgence in sensual pleasures, which is low, crude, ordinary, ignoble, and pointless. And indulgence in self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, and pointless. Avoiding these two extremes, the Realized One understood the middle way of practice, which gives vision and knowledge, and leads to peace, direct knowledge, awakening, and extinguishment.

And what is that middle way of practice? It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion. This is that middle way of practice, which gives vision and knowledge, and leads to peace, direct knowledge, awakening, and extinguishment.

Now this is the noble truth of suffering. Rebirth is suffering; old age is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering; association with the disliked is suffering; separation from the liked is suffering; not getting what you wish for is suffering. In brief, the five grasping aggregates are suffering.

Now this is the noble truth of the origin of suffering. It’s the craving that leads to future lives, mixed up with relishing and greed, taking pleasure wherever it lands. That is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving to continue existence, and craving to end existence.

Now this is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering. It’s the fading away and cessation of that very same craving with nothing left over; giving it away, letting it go, releasing it, and not clinging to it.

Now this is the noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering. It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion.

‘This is the noble truth of suffering.’ Such was the vision, knowledge, wisdom, realization, and light that arose in me regarding teachings not learned before from another. ‘This noble truth of suffering should be completely understood.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of suffering has been completely understood.’ Such was the vision that arose in me …

‘This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering should be given up.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been given up.’ Such was the vision that arose in me …

‘This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering should be realized.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized.’ Such was the vision that arose in me …

‘This is the noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering should be developed.’ Such was the vision that arose in me … ‘This noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering has been developed.’ Such was the vision, knowledge, wisdom, realization, and light that arose in me regarding teachings not learned before from another.

As long as my true knowledge and vision about these four noble truths was not fully purified in these three rounds and twelve aspects, I didn’t announce my supreme perfect awakening in this world with its gods, Māras, and Divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans.

But when my true knowledge and vision about these four noble truths was fully purified in these three rounds and twelve aspects, I announced my supreme perfect awakening in this world with its gods, Māras, and Divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans.

Knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘My freedom is unshakable; this is my last rebirth; now there’ll be no more future lives.’”

That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the group of five mendicants approved what the Buddha said.

Dhammacakkappavattanasutta, SN 56.11, translated by Bhikkhu Sujato.

This post is running much longer than I expected to, so I will revisit this at a later point! Next in our discussion will be further elaborations on the Four Noble Truths and duḥkha; further elaboration on the five aggregates; the concept of no-self (anātman) and doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā); the spread of Buddhism and the various Mahāyāna teachings; Vajrayāna and why Tibetan Buddhism is so different; etc. etc.